Identity Theft And Phishing As Cybercrimes Criminology Essay

Identity Theft And Phishing As Cybercrimes Criminology Essay Cybercrimes can be defined as criminal activities which take place or occur within cyberspace. These crimes are common and ever increasing as cybercriminals continue to find new ways of taking advantage of unwary internet users (Mitchell, 2010). A frequently practiced form of cybercrime includes identity theft, which is the use of an individuals private details without their knowledge or approval (Ombudsman for Banking Services, 2009). This essay will discuss phishing as a form of identity theft with the use of various articles as examples to enhance the understanding of identity theft and phishing as cybercrimes. In addition, a criminological theory will be applied to identity theft in order to gain further insight into this particular cybercrime. Defining Cybercrime Cybercrime is used generally to describe a variety of illegal offences of which only a few are specifically associated with computers and the telecommunications infrastructure that supports their use. This specific crime type involves the utilization of digital technologies in the task of the offence or is specifically directed at computing and communications technologies, or is incidental to the commission of other crimes (Smith et al. 2004:7). Identity theft and phishing can be described as forms of cybercriminal activity. These crimes are defined as hybrid crimes. Hybrid crimes are those which can exist online as well as offline. Specifically, these crimes work with the worldwide scope that cyber environments provide (Muncie et al. 2010:77). Currently, cybercrime is an extremely profitable business and will no doubt continue to be for a very long time. The main reason for this is because many people are not aware of how rife it is and of how susceptible they are to the threat of this crime. The best possible way that consumers and corporations can protect themselves from cybercrimes and cybercriminal activity is to alert themselves and those around them with the use of awareness campaigns and also, people should make sure that their systems are protected with Anti-Malware and Anti-Virus software kits which have precise virus definition and regular software updates to decrease the risk of being under threat of cybercriminal activity (Microzoneg, 2009). Identity Theft Identity theft is defined as a crime that happens when someone wrongfully gains access to and uses the personal information of another individual in a way that involves fraud or dishonesty. Usually, this crime is carried out in order to gain access to an individuals personal funds. Victims of identity theft normally become aware when they note that they are frequently being charged for items that they never purchased, or when they realise that there has been an opening of a new credit card after viewing their credit reports (Jasper, 2006:1). Annually, 10 million consumers are the victims of identity theft. There are many ways in which cybercriminals can obtain an individuals personal information, and these are generally very cleverly disguised. Criminals can intercept personal information that is freely shared over the Internet and can also easily obtain information such as the victims account details by emailing them and falsely acting as their bank (Jasper, 2006:1-3). Because of the fact that individuals are so afraid that they will fall prey to cybercriminals, at times they do not think rationally when asked for their personal details. When provided the chance of being able to protect themselves, individuals will willingly give all the details needed if the bank requires them to do so. Thus, cybercriminals do not find it immensely difficult to obtain all the beneficial information that they need. Some examples of identity theft crimes are the run-up of costs on the victims credit cards, opening a new credit card account making use of the victims name, birth date and social security number, establishing a telephone or wireless facility using the victims name, opening a bank account and writing bad cheques on the account and obtaining employment by making use of the victims personal identity (Jasper, 2006:3-4). Phishing as a Cybercrime Phishing is a form of identity theft which includes the deceitful endeavour to gain the personal details of an individual with the use of text messages and emails. The criminal will act as the victims bank, for example, and will request personal information from the consumer (such as the PIN number) in order to gain access to the funds in the account. (Ramsamy, 2009) As explained before, the consumer makes it easy for the cybercriminal to gain access to their personal funds and resources as they are so adamant on keeping themselves safe from cybercrime that they very readily give out their information without thinking sensibly. Cases of Cybercrime Over the years, cybercrime has become much more frequent in nature. These cases can be found occurring throughout the world, and will probably continue to occur for a very long time as it is such a profitable business (microzoneg, 2009). Theft of Virtual Characters In the month of November 2009, a man was arrested for stealing virtual characters from a web based role-playing game. The man apparently obtained the log-in information for Runescape, reportedly the worlds largest multi-player online game, to embezzle their virtual characters. The article, published in The Times, states that the man who is from Avon and Somerset Area had already had a number of computer mistreatment offences on his criminal record (Ahmed, 2009). These types of crimes do occur quite often, as a similar case occurred in the Netherlands in 2008. Reportedly, a group of fourteen and fifteen year olds were convicted for the assault of a fellow Runescape player. The boys had threatened the player with a knife, pressuring him to give them a mask and an amulet within the game (Ahmed, 2009). Online gaming seems to be the cause of a lot of recent violent behaviours amongst youth, and the stealing of virtual characters may not seem to be such a tremendous crime, but thinking of all the time and effort that has been put into creating that specific character, this crime shouldnt be, according to Mark Gerhard, the chief executive of Jagex Games, treated differently to the theft of any other valuable possessions (Ahmed, 2009). Credit and Debit Card Information Hackings Another case of cybercrime was highlighted in May 2008, when a Mr Albert Gonzalez was arrested for one of the largest hackings in all of US history. The computer hacker aided with the theft of tens of millions of credit card numbers from major retailers (AP, 2009). He is reportedly going to be spending between 17-25 years behind bars as a result of the seriousness of this criminal offence. Gonzalez did, however, confirm that he had used a number of drugs and consumed large quantities of alcohol preceding his arrest. He admitted to using various narcotics such as marijuana, LSD and cocaine and he has also been said to have behavioural patterns which are very consistent with that of Aspergers Syndrome, which is a form of autism (AP, 2004). According to Dr Barry Roth, a member of the defence commission, Albert was an internet addict who was often associated with awkwardness, had troubles when it came to connecting with people and had an odd fixation with machines and technology in general (AP, 2009). Because drugs and alcohol are so often associated with violent behaviour and aggressiveness, it can be said that they warp the minds of many people and cause them to do things that generally are not expected of them. Since Albert Gonzalez did make use of drugs and alcohol frequently, it could perhaps be said that it caused him to become fixated with technological things and the Internet specifically because it also gave a sense of escaping reality and, since alcohol causes people to believe they can do anything, could have led Albert to believe that he could steal money and still get away with it. With all crimes, the psychological and behavioural background of the offender needs to be taken into consideration. Military Computer Hacking In 2002 a man named Gary McKinnon was arrested for what is described as the greatest military computer hack of all time (The Sunday Times, 2009). McKinnon was allegedly blamed for $700,000 of destruction when he hacked into 97 military computers at the Pentagon and NASA and stole 950 passwords, as well as erased files from the Earle naval armaments post in New Jersey. McKinnon stated in an interview to The Sunday Times that he had not meant for the hackings to seem malicious, but that he was simply curious and wanted to find out information about UFOs. He also openly admitted that he sees himself as a nerd and a loner and that he used to drink beer and smoke dope while hacking into the military systems (The Sunday Times, 2009). This perception of himself could arise from the fact that Gary has Aspergers syndrome. This syndrome does not affect the mental intelligence of the person because the sufferer is in fact very intelligent, but it does leave the sufferer feeling uncomfortable in social situations (The Sunday Times, 2009). This crime could leave Gary McKinnon spending 60 years in prison, which is a very high price to pay for simply being curious. Due to the fact that he has Aspergers syndrome and often resorts to drinking and smoking marijuana, it could be assumed that perhaps these elements wrongfully influenced him to engage in illegal activities, and in addition with his illness could have made matters even worse. Perhaps, due to his loneliness and inability to socialise, he resorted to finding company with the Internet and hacking to gain information that interested him. The Role of Gender in Cybercrime Generally, males are known to display higher rates of abnormal behaviour as compared to females. Although small, the gap between the rates of male and female criminal behaviour is constant. Historically, most forms of crime such as violence, aggressiveness, and freedom of speech were carried out by men, but with the case of cybercrime we cannot simply state that males perform these criminal activities more than females because there is not enough evidence of this; it has not been explored to a very great extent. However, a test done by a few undergraduate students concludes that existing theories of crime may apply similarly to males and females in predicting digital crimes (Morris, 2009:393-404). Criminological Theory Applied to Cybercrime A criminological theory that can be applied to the act of cybercrime is the theory of Routine Activities. This theory states that criminal actions take place when there is an intersection of space and time of a stimulated criminal, a desirable target and an absence of competent supervision (Cullen, 2002). The two important people who were responsible for the proposal of this theory are Larry Cohen and Marcus Felson in 1979. Their theory is very strongly related to that of the Rational Choice theory. This is because both theories concentrate on the features of the crime as opposed to the features of the offender (DeMelo, 1999). The Routine Activities theory states that offences are linked to the nature of everyday patterns of social interaction (DeMelo, 1999). Felson and Cohen believed that changes in society had and is still leading to social disorganisation and thus to broader crime opportunities (DeMelo, 1999). In the cases of the cybercriminals, Albert Gonzalez, Gary McKinnon and the virtual character thief, this criminological theory is applied very well. They had begun their cybercrimes (hackings) with enthusiasm and determination, had found attractive targets to fulfil their desires, and had no one to tell them that it was wrong, illegal and could get them into a lot of trouble. Conclusion Therefore, it is quite clear that cybercrime is a rather serious crime and is continuing to increase in frequency as time goes by and society constantly changes. Also, the nature of these crimes is becoming more and more violent, especially amongst the youth of our world. Societies need to become more self-disciplined, and both offenders and victims need to be more aware of the dangers and consequences of these criminal behaviours, especially phishing and identity theft. Phishing and identity theft as forms of cybercrime can be classified under the Routine Activities criminological theory as they rise in frequency as society changes and a disorganised society opens up greater crime opportunities for offenders. Cybercrimes should not be taken lightly, and if not dealt with correctly, will continue to be on the rise for many years to come. Word Count: 2088

Satire Research Paper

Ezechias Francoeur January 19 Bailey Satire Lesson 13 an Introduction to  Pygmalion 3-2-1 Reflection Sheet List  three details  you learned  by reading Act 1 of  Pygmalion  by George Bernard Shaw:| 1. I learned about phonetics, which is the science of speech and how it can be used to identify people of different nationalities. 2. The flower girl whose name is Eliza is basically stereotyped into being a nothing for the rest of her life because of her speech. 3. The character who plays the note taker is actually Henry Higgins, and he is the one who uses phonetics. What  two  things do you predict  will happen in Act 2? | 1. I predict that in Act 2 Eliza may be in a different town but with the same worries of a beggar because her money has finished. 2. I also predict that in Act 2 Higgins will reveal more of himself to the audience. | In  two  paragraphs, reflect  on  one  time in your life when you were misjudged for the way you speak, or reflect on a time w hen you misjudged someone else because of the way she or he spoke. Stereotypes are often placed on the most innocent of bystanders, forced to take on a name or personality which in reality may not be anything like the actual person. Stereotypes are a major problem today and is displayed everywhere on the media such as television, radio and the Internet. Even I myself has experienced the awful event of being misjudged based on the way I spoke or talk. Although the judgment was unfair it was still placed upon me and it felt bad. There are many stereotypes such as white men can’t jump, Mexicans hopped the border, all French are mean, and many more. All of them are often placed upon someone unfairly. There was a time when I was at the store with my friends and everything was going fine when all of sudden two store security guards appear out of nowhere and begin to question me on my whereabouts. I was mistaken for a thief based on a report of black male but also I was stereotyped as a thief simply because I was a black male. |

One of the Most Incredibly Disregarded Answers for Random Argumentative Essay Topics

One of the Most Incredibly Disregarded Answers for Random Argumentative Essay Topics Random Argumentative Essay Topics - Is it a Scam? You research, develop an argument, find evidence to back up your claims, etc. An argumentative paper is part of the persuasion. If you're writing an argument essay, you might require a couple more sources to make an effective argument. Your reader ought to be convinced your argument is valid. Definitions of Random Argumentative Essay Topics Remember your essay shouldn't be a string of jokes, it's a narrative it ought to have a start, middle and the end. The main aim of topic choice for a proposal essay is to demonstrate the idea can be put into place in practice. It's important to understand that essay topics are just basic ideas that leave you pondering a notion that might be a huge deal to another person. When you are requested to choose a great topic for your argument, start with something you're familiarized with. Examine the list to ch oose the topic which can help you compose a creative essay for your middle school class. Describe the college you would like to visit. For instance, you can pick a topic for elementary, middle, or higher school. It's possible to go for an intriguing topic from any area of science. You spend a whole lot of education on writing argumentative essays. Therefore, for your coursework, you will want to have the very best ideas. The procedure for grading student papers can be a really boring one. Well, grading papers can be rather dull. The introduction should offer general information which will be included in the post. The option of compare and contrast essay topics isn't a simple task because you have to demonstrate your analytical skills. You may find that a number of the topics can be adapted to suit almost any sort of writing assignment. Besides general knowledge you have concerning the subject, you won't mind dedicating some opportunity to research, writing procedure, and other facets essential for the high-quality essay. By way of example, in college, you might be requested to compose a paper from the opposing perspective. Bear in mind you can make funny argumentative essays if you do a few things. First thing you ought to do is to think about a few extensive topic you want to write about. For instance, you can write about something that personally affects you or somebody you know. Read the list and stay in mind that interesting topics are a correct way for an intriguing assignment. Okay, you own a topic, a working thesis statement, and a couple quick food articles to begin your research. You may use different examples which can be found on the web at no cost. How some advertising can be quite powerful. The cost of an essay is dependent upon the quantity of effort the writer has to exert. Cell phone use and texting allow it to be hard to concentrate. Identity theft is a very big issue for elderly men and women. The Bad Secret of Random Argumentative Essay Topics You've got to compose an informative essay. If you decide to be an independent essay writer, you can expect the exact same. Regardless of what essay topic you were given, our essay generator will have the ability to finish your essay easily. Argumentative essay topics are so important since they are debatableand it's important to at all times be critically considering the world around us. Having selected an excellent topic to argue about, at this point you need to make an argumentative essay outline. Therefore, the topic ought to be debatable! Quite frequently, the ideal topic is one which you truly care about, but you also will need to get well prepared to research it. Picking an emotional topic is also a superb idea. Persuasive essay topics need a lot of reading and research. It is among the most tough types of essays, yet is it among the most favorite professor's assignments. Persuasive essays share a good deal of resemblance with argumentative essays. They are a great way to encourage the reader to look at a certain topic in a different light.

Essay about Sophocles Antigone A Great Tragedy - 1073 Words

One decisions changes your entire life and the lives of others. One decision can create a major difference, but one decision can create major conflict. One decision affects all other decisions. The effects of one decision are present in Antigone by the greek author, Sophocles. The setting of Antigone is the ancient city of Thebes after a battle between Polyneices and Eteocles. During the battle, a great tragedy occurs when Eteocles and Polyneices kill each other. The battle is a result of one decision by Polyneices to conquer Thebes, and his attempt is a utter failure. Polyneices decision to attack Thebes dramatically alters the future course of Thebes. Polyneicess attack removes Eteocles from power and promotes Creon to power.†¦show more content†¦Creon plays the role of God by deciding who can and cannot experience the afterlife, and he uses civil law to overrule divine law. This draws sympathy toward Antigones situation. Antigone fears Polyneices will suffer for eternity if she does not act. Antigone buries Polyneices, so he will experience eternal life. Her brother Eteocles receives a proper burial from Creon, and Antigone ensures Polyneices has the same opportunity regardless of his actions. Antigone feels she is simply fulfilling the traditions and practices of her beliefs. Creon tries to control the beliefs of the citizens in Thebes with the threat of persecution. Creon creates consequences for doing the right thing. Creons decree allows the audience to feel fear for Antigone. Creon persecutes anyone who tries to simply do his or her duty to his or her faith. Antigone acts morally and religiously in fear. Antigone does not show her fear, but the audience feels fear and despair for the outcome of her actions. The outcome of Antigones actions only bolster the audiences feelings of sympathy and fear. Antigone does not leave her family members behind. 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Essay on The Problem of Police Corruption - 951 Words

Illinois and most notably Chicago are best known for their corrupt public officials. From the days of Cermak and the Daley political machine, corruption has become second nature to these â€Å"public servants†. From rigging elections to accepting ‘dirty’ donations to the alderman’s campaigns, corruption can be found from the very top of the political layer, down to the lowest government position. Those involved in the corruption have benefited greatly from their dirty deeds. Public residents aren’t directly aware of this corruption since they aren’t public officials, but most can attest to corruption when it involves the local police officers and the exploitation of the public. Although corruption has a basic generic definition, it is†¦show more content†¦Dr. Hollist is a professor at the University of Montana and teaches criminology and other sociology courses. In regards to the progression of corruption, Dr. Hollist has documented that â€Å"Scholars have argued that there is a progression into serious corruption and they have identified two Types of corrupt officers. Grass Eaters [depict] a corrupt officer who passively accepts gratuities. Meat Eaters [depict] a corrupt officer who aggressively solicits bribes.† (Hollist). Hollist is examining a small scope of the nature of police corruption. In addition to Hollist’s identification of corrupt officers, Lawrence Sherman in his book, An Introduction to Policing, â€Å"There are three general categories or levels of corruption within police departments (Lawrence Sherman, as cited in Dempsey and Forst 2005, 299). The first level is†the rotten apples and rotten pockets† theory of police corruption, which holds that only one officer or a very small group of officers in a department or precinct, is corrupt. 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Genetically Modified Foods Their Benefits and Drawbacks Free Essays

Dear Senator Cornyn, As a United States Senator representing the state of Texas, you know that representing the best interests of your constituents is a full time job. Perhaps one of the most important items in the lives of Texans is how and where their supply of food is produced. While normal agricultural techniques do provide many of the food in the market today, genetically modified foods, or GM foods are quickly becoming an integral part of America’s food system. We will write a custom essay sample on Genetically Modified Foods: Their Benefits and Drawbacks or any similar topic only for you Order Now This letter is being submitted to offer you a brief summary of what genetically modified foods are, their benefits, and their drawbacks. It is our hope that you will use this information to make informed decisions concerning this controversial subject. Specifically speaking, genetic modification is a special set of technologies that alter genetic makeup of organisms such as animals, plants, or bacteria. It is a form of biotechnology in which specific gene sequences are inserted into a specific plant or animal so that the trait exhibited by the gene is manifested in the plant or animal. By allowing specific genes to be re-combined, the value of the recipient organism can be greatly increased. The potential risks attributed to such a genetically engineered crop can also be increased. Based on the available information, there are quite a number of tangible benefits to genetically modified plants. Crops can be genetically engineered to be more resistant to pests, either plant or animal. By making such plants as corn, soybeans or even alfalfa more resistant, the resultant crop yields are larger, and the need for environmentally dangerous pesticides or herbicides are decreased greatly. Other crops, such as rice, have been genetically modified to include iron and Vitamin A to increase their health benefits. There are some risks involved with using genetically modified crops. One of the most far reaching is the possibility of the genetically modified foods harming other organisms. A recent study of Cornell University indicated that a gene for a bacterial toxin inserted into corn was poisonous to monarch butterfly larvae. It is a prime example of the far reaching affects of such alteration in the food system. Another risk inherent in this type of modification is uncontrolled cross-pollination. Once a modified gene is placed within a plant, it is extremely difficult to prevent it spreading to the rest of the crop. There is a strong possibility of a once desirable modification becoming an undesirable trait in another plant. Finally, the modified plants that have an increased resistance to pests and weeds can in time promote the evolution of more resilient weeds and pests through cross breeding or selective evolution. At the time, no medical harm to humans has been traced to ingesting genetically modified foods. It should be remembered, that is not the same as proving that genetically modified organisms pose no potential dangers. It is our hope that this letter will provide you with a very brief overview of the many benefits and potential drawbacks of genetically modified foods. Please feel free to contact us or other industry experts if you require further or more detailed information. How to cite Genetically Modified Foods: Their Benefits and Drawbacks, Papers

Andrew and Bob-Case-Study-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Questions: 1.Explain what are conditions, warranties and innominate terms of a contract and the remedies an innocent party can have if each of such terms was breached. Please support your answer with relevant case law. 2.Discuss all factors before coming to a conclusion. You should also include cases and relevant statutory provisions in your answer. Answers: 1.A key part of any contract is the terms of the contract, as these terms give rise to the legal rights and duties for the contracting parties. The contractual terms could take the form of conditions, warranties, or can be innominate terms (Mau, 2010). A condition is defined as an important terms of the contract, which is at the base of the drawn contract. In case of a breach of condition, the aggrieved party has the choice of getting the contract repudiated and simultaneously claim damages for the same (Clarke and Clarke, 2016). A leading example of this is the case of Poussard v Spiers (1876) 1 QBD 410, in which a contract was formed for performance as opera singer for three months by Poussard. However, due to her becoming sick 5 days before the opening night, she was unable to perform for the first 4 nights and consequently had to be replaced. The court held that the condition had been breached by Poussard which allowed Spiers to end the contract (Latimer, 2012). Warranties are deemed as the minor terms of contract which do not form a fundamental part for the contracts existence. Where a warranty is contravened, the aggrieved party has the option of claiming damages; however, unlike condition, the contract cannot be ended (Bonell, 2009). In Bettini v Gye (1876) QBD 183, there had been a contract by Bettini to perform as an opera singer for 3 months. Due to his ill health, he missed six days of rehearsals and he was sacked as a result of it. It was held that Bettini breached warranty and so the contract could not be ended since rehearsals were not fundamental to the contract (Latimer, 2012). The concept of innominate terms was given in the case of Hong Kong Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962] 2 QB 26. As per this approach, instead of classifying the terms as warranties or conditions, the effect of breach has to be looked at and the questions regarding the aggrieved party having been deprived of the entire benefit of the contract in a substantial manner has to be looked at. The contract would be deemed at an end only when the aggrieved person had been substantially deprived of the entire contractual benefit (McKendrick and Liu, 2015). In the quoted case, a ship had been chartered to the defendant for 2 years. Covered in this agreement was a term that the ship would be seaworthy across the hire period. The troubles were raised when the engine of the ship, along with its engine crew proved to be inept. Consequently, the ship was out of service for a period of five week at first instance and fifteen weeks at later instance. This was deemed as a breach of condition by the defendant and they ended the contract. The plaintiff raised a claim of wrongful repudiation stating the seaworthiness was not the contracts condition. The Court of Appeal held that the defendant had indeed wrongfully repudiated the contract and with this was the innominate term approach introduced. The court stated that twenty weeks out of two year contract period did not result in substantial deprivation to the defendant of the entire benefit and so, the defendant did not have the right to repudiate the contract (Roach, 2016). 2.Issue In the given case study, it is not disputed that Andrew and Bob were injured while they were at a concert organized by the defendants, i.e., NIS and promoters. The issue here relates to whether Andrew and Bob can sue NIS or the promoters of the event for their injuries, due to applicability of exclusion clause or not? Rule An important part of any contract is the exclusion clause. Exclusion clause is such a contractual clause which results in the restriction or limitation on the liability arising for the contractual party. So, the exclusion clause can restrict the liability of a person arising due to breach of contract, negligence and the like. For the validity of any exclusion clause, there is a need for the said exclusion clause to have been included in the contract properly. The exclusion clause cannot limit the application of any statute or statutory instrument, and where an attempt is made to do so, it would be invalid (Treitel and Peel, 2015). It is crucial that the exclusion clause is brought to the notice of the party against which the same is included, particularly when the same is referred elsewhere. In Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd. (1971) 1 All ER 686, the plaintiff got injured due to the negligence of the defendant. The plaintiff had been given a ticket for entering into the part and the backside of this ticket covered the exclusion clause. When the matter reached the court, they stated that this exclusion clause was not valid in this case due to the improper incorporation of the same into the contract (Poole, 2016). In Olley v Marlborough Court [1949] 1 KB 532, a hotel was booked by the plaintiff. The contract had been formed at the reception desk and the exclusion clause was never mentioned. In the room of the hotel, the backside of the door covered the notice for excluding the liability for lost, damaged or stolen property, over the hotel proprietors. The fur coat of the plaintiff was stolen and the matter reached court. The court held that the notice would not be deemed as effective, as the contract had been made before the plaintiff saw the notice and did not form a part of the contract (Stone and Devenney, 2017). However, there is reasonableness with regards to bringing the clause to the attention of the parties. In Thompson v London, Midland and Scotland Railway Co [1930] 1 KB 41, the court held that the display of prominent notice on platforms was enough to deem the exclusion clause as been properly incorporated. The only thing was to take the reasonable step in bringing the exclusion clause to the notice of a rationale party. And there was not a duty of ensuring that every traveller was aware of this clause. Hence, the plaintiff failed in claiming damages from the defendant (Mulcahy, 2008). Application The case study given here shows that the exclusion clause was covered at the backside of the ticket when Andrew and Bob purchased the ticket. This is similar to what happened in Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd, In Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd. (1971) 1 All ER 686, the plaintiff got injured due to the negligence of the defendant. The plaintiff had been given a ticket for entering into the part and the backside of this ticket covered the exclusion clause. In the opinion of the court this exclusion clause was not valid in this case due to the improper incorporation of the same into the contract. For the poster at the side of the counter, Olley v Marlborough Court would make it invalid as the defendants did not bring it to the notice of the party. However, the applicability of Thompson v London, Midland and Scotland Railway Co would make it valid as this exclusion clause was brought to the notice of a rationale party. The choice of Andrew to not read it cannot be blamed on the defendants. Conclusion Thus, on the basis of this discussion, it can be concluded that the exclusion clause was valid and Andrew and Bob would fail in their claim against the defendants for their injuries, due to applicability of exclusion clause. References Bonell, M.J. (2009) An International Restatement of Contract Law:The Unidroit Principles of International Commercial Contracts. 3rd ed. New York: Transnational Publishers, Inc. Clarke, P., and Clarke, J (2016) Contract Law: Commentaries, Cases and Perspectives. 3rd ed. South Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Latimer, P. (2012) Australian Business Law 2012. 31st ed. Sydney, NSW: CCH Australia Limited. Mau, S.D. (2010) Contract Law in Hong Kong: An Introductory Guide. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. McKendrick, E., and Liu, Q. (2015) Contract Law: Australian Edition. London: Palgrave. Mulcahy, L. (2008) Contract Law in Perspective. 5th ed. Oxon: Routledge. Poole, J. (2016) Textbook on Contract Law. 13th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Roach, L. (2016) Card and James' Business Law. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stone, R., and Devenney, J. (2017) The Modern Law of Contract. 12th ed. Oxon: Routledge. Treitel, G H., and Peel, E. (2015) The Law of Contract. 14th ed. London: Sweet and Maxwell.